Three protein-tyrosine kinases (VEGFR1, VEGFR2, and VEGFR3) and two non-protein kinase co-receptors (neuropilin-1 and neuropilin-2) make up the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family of receptors. The extracellular component of VEGFRs, which has seven immunoglobulin-like domains, one transmembrane domain, and a split tyrosine kinase domain, make up typical tyrosine kinase receptors (TKRs). VEGFR-1 binds to VEGF-A, -B, and PlGF; VEGFR-2 is activated by VEGF-A, -C, -D, and -E; and VEGFR-3 is particular to VEGF-C and -D.The consensus model for ligand-induced activation of RTKs states that VEGF binds to a cognate VEGFR to cause receptor dimerization, which then triggers the activation of protein kinases, autophosphorylation of tyrosine residues in the intracellular domains of the receptor, and the initiation of signaling pathways like PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK1/2. VEGFR signaling is tightly controlled at many different levels, including receptor expression levels, the availability and affinities of its various ligands for binding, the presence of VEGF-binding co-receptors, non-VEGF-binding auxiliary proteins, and inactivating tyrosine phosphatases, as well as the rate of receptor cellular uptake, extent of receptor degradation, and speed of recycling.
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