Pseudomonas produces potassium gluconate, a simple sugar acid that is the primary antifungal metabolite. Strait AN5 provides protection against a variety of fungal diseases through biocontrol [1].

Absorption, Distribution and Excretion
Potassium is absorbed rapidly and efficiently. A 2016 dose-response study found that the human body absorbs approximately 94% of potassium gluconate from supplements, a rate similar to that of potassium from potatoes. 90% of potassium is excreted through the kidneys. A small amount is excreted through feces and sweat. Potassium is primarily distributed intracellularly, but intravascular concentration is the main cause of toxicity. Potassium is freely filtered by the glomeruli. Most of the filtered potassium is reabsorbed in the proximal tubules and loop of Henle. Less than 10% of the filtered potassium reaches the distal nephrons. In the proximal tubules of the nephrons, potassium absorption is primarily passive and proportional to the concentrations of sodium and water. Potassium reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle occurs mainly via transcellular and paracellular pathways. The transcellular pathway is regulated by potassium transport via apical membrane sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporters. Potassium secretion begins in the early distal convoluted tubule of the nephron and gradually increases along the tubule to the cortical collecting duct. Most potassium ions in urine originate from electrogenic potassium secretion mediated by chief cells in the initial and cortical collecting ducts. A neutral potassium-chloride cotransport mechanism also exists on the apical membrane of the distal convoluted tubule. In potassium deficiency, potassium ions are reabsorbed in the collecting duct. This process is regulated by the upregulation of H+-K+-ATPase on α-intercalated cells located on the apical membrane.

[1]. Gluconic acid: an antifungal agent produced by Pseudomonas species in biological control of take-all. Phytochemistry. 2006 Mar;67(6):595-604.

Potassium gluconate is an L-α-D-Hepp-(1->7)-L-α-D-Hepp-(1->3)-L-α-D-Hepp-(1->5)-α-Kdo compound. Potassium gluconate is a salt of [DB01345] and is classified as a food additive by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It is also used as a potassium supplement. Potassium is an essential nutrient. It is the most abundant cation in intracellular fluid and plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular function. In dietary supplements, potassium is usually present as potassium chloride, but many other forms are also used, including potassium citrate, potassium phosphate, potassium aspartate, potassium bicarbonate, and potassium gluconate. Potassium gluconate is considered easier to ingest and less prone to acidification than potassium chloride (KCl). Pharmaceutical Indications Due to the wide range of functions potassium plays in the body, insufficient intake increases the risk of disease. Potassium supplements are suitable for the prevention of hypokalemia, especially for patients who are particularly susceptible to hypokalemia once it occurs (e.g., patients receiving digitalis treatment and with severe arrhythmias). Potassium deficiency occurs when the rate of potassium loss through renal excretion and/or gastrointestinal tract exceeds the rate of potassium intake. In addition to being used as a preventative supplement, potassium gluconate can also be used to treat hypokalemia.

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Mechanism of Action
Potassium is the most abundant cation in human cells (approximately 150 to 160 mEq/L). Intracellular sodium content is relatively low. Extracellular fluid is predominantly sodium, with low potassium content (3.5–5 mEq/L). A membrane-bound enzyme—Na+K+ATPase—actively transports or pumps sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell to maintain the potassium concentration gradient inside and outside the cell. Intracellular potassium ion concentration gradients are crucial for nerve impulse signal transduction in specialized tissues such as the heart, brain, and skeletal muscle, and are also essential for maintaining renal physiological function and acid-base balance. High intracellular potassium ion concentrations are necessary for many cellular metabolic processes. Intracellular potassium ions act as a reservoir, limiting the decrease in extracellular potassium concentration caused by potassium loss from the body under pathological conditions.

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Therapeutic Uses
Regardless of the salt used, potassium ions are completely dissociated, therefore their stimulatory effect and absorption by anions in the compound are unaffected. /Potassium Salts/
Potassium sources used to treat hypokalemia, such as hypokalemia caused by adrenocortical hormone therapy or the use of thiazide diuretics, or for artificially inducing hyperkalemia, such as for the treatment of digitalis poisoning.
...Used to treat hypokalemia with hyperchloremia (e.g., renal tubular acidosis, hypokalemia with acidosis). If...used for patients with hypokalemic hypochloremic alkalosis, a chloride source (e.g., ammonium chloride, lysine hydrochloride) should be provided. /Potassium Fertilizer/

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Drug Warning
Sugar-coated potassium gluconate tablets have higher solubility in the gastrointestinal tract than enteric-coated potassium chloride tablets, but because of this, they can also cause the irritation that the potassium chloride coating avoids. Therefore, potassium gluconate tablets are not superior to non-enteric-coated potassium chloride tablets.
Drinking a large glass of water when taking potassium gluconate can greatly reduce the irritation... Hypochloremia is often accompanied by hypokalemia; in this case, potassium chloride is definitely superior to potassium gluconate.
...Because gluconate is metabolized into bicarbonate, leading to alkalosis, and patients with hypokalemia may experience alkalosis. Therefore, it is difficult to find a situation where gluconate is superior to potassium chloride.

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Pharmacodynamics
Potassium is an essential nutrient. It is the most abundant cation in intracellular fluid and plays a key role in maintaining cell function, especially in excitatory cells such as skeletal muscle, heart, and nerves. Increased interstitial potassium plays an important role in triggering rapid vasodilation, increasing blood flow in exercising muscles.

C6H11KO7

234.25

234.014

299-27-4

D-Gluconic acid calcium hydrate;66905-23-5;D-Gluconic acid (solution);526-95-4

16760467

White to off-white solid powder

1.73 g/cm3

673.6ºC at 760 mmHg

183 °C (dec.)(lit.)

375.2ºC

5

7

5

14

176

4

C([C@H]([C@H]([C@@H]([C@H](C(=O)[O-])O)O)O)O)O.[K+]

HLCFGWHYROZGBI-JJKGCWMISA-M

InChI=1S/C6H12O7.K/c7-1-2(8)3(9)4(10)5(11)6(12)13;/h2-5,7-11H,1H2,(H,12,13);/q;+1/p-1/t2-,3-,4+,5-;/m1./s1

potassium;(2R,3S,4R,5R)-2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanoate

Kalium Gluconate; K-Iao; HSDB 3165

2934.99.9001

Powder      -20°C    3 years

                     4°C     2 years

In solvent   -80°C    6 months

                  -20°C    1 month

Note: Please store this product in a sealed and protected environment, avoid exposure to moisture.

Room temperature (This product is stable at ambient temperature for a few days during ordinary shipping and time spent in Customs)

H2O : ~100 mg/mL (~426.89 mM)
DMSO : ~1.25 mg/mL (~5.34 mM)

Note: Listed below are some common formulations that may be used to formulate products with low water solubility (e.g. < 1 mg/mL), you may test these formulations using a minute amount of products to avoid loss of samples.

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Injection Formulation 1: DMSO : Tween 80： Saline = 10 : 5 : 85 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO stock solution → 50 μL Tween 80 → 850 μL Saline)
*Preparation of saline: Dissolve 0.9 g of sodium chloride in 100 mL ddH ₂ O to obtain a clear solution.
Injection Formulation 2: DMSO : PEG300 ：Tween 80 : Saline = 10 : 40 : 5 : 45 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 400 μLPEG300 → 50 μL Tween 80 → 450 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 3: DMSO : Corn oil = 10 : 90 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 900 μL Corn oil)
Example: Take the Injection Formulation 3 (DMSO : Corn oil = 10 : 90) as an example, if 1 mL of 2.5 mg/mL working solution is to be prepared, you can take 100 μL 25 mg/mL DMSO stock solution and add to 900 μL corn oil, mix well to obtain a clear or suspension solution (2.5 mg/mL, ready for use in animals).

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Injection Formulation 4: DMSO : 20% SBE-β-CD in saline = 10 : 90 [i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 900 μL (20% SBE-β-CD in saline)]
*Preparation of 20% SBE-β-CD in Saline (4°C，1 week): Dissolve 2 g SBE-β-CD in 10 mL saline to obtain a clear solution.
Injection Formulation 5: 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin : Saline = 50 : 50 (i.e. 500 μL 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin → 500 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 6: DMSO : PEG300 : castor oil : Saline = 5 : 10 : 20 : 65 (i.e. 50 μL DMSO → 100 μLPEG300 → 200 μL castor oil → 650 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 7: Ethanol : Cremophor : Saline = 10： 10 : 80 (i.e. 100 μL Ethanol → 100 μL Cremophor → 800 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 8: Dissolve in Cremophor/Ethanol (50 : 50), then diluted by Saline
Injection Formulation 9: EtOH : Corn oil = 10 : 90 (i.e. 100 μL EtOH → 900 μL Corn oil)
Injection Formulation 10: EtOH : PEG300：Tween 80 : Saline = 10 : 40 : 5 : 45 (i.e. 100 μL EtOH → 400 μLPEG300 → 50 μL Tween 80 → 450 μL Saline)

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Oral Formulation 1: Suspend in 0.5% CMC Na (carboxymethylcellulose sodium)
Oral Formulation 2: Suspend in 0.5% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Example: Take the Oral Formulation 1 (Suspend in 0.5% CMC Na) as an example, if 100 mL of 2.5 mg/mL working solution is to be prepared, you can first prepare 0.5% CMC Na solution by measuring 0.5 g CMC Na and dissolve it in 100 mL ddH2O to obtain a clear solution; then add 250 mg of the product to 100 mL 0.5% CMC Na solution, to make the suspension solution (2.5 mg/mL, ready for use in animals).

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Oral Formulation 3: Dissolved in PEG400
Oral Formulation 4: Suspend in 0.2% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Oral Formulation 5: Dissolve in 0.25% Tween 80 and 0.5% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Oral Formulation 6: Mixing with food powders

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Note: Please be aware that the above formulations are for reference only. InvivoChem strongly recommends customers to read literature methods/protocols carefully before determining which formulation you should use for in vivo studies, as different compounds have different solubility properties and have to be formulated differently.

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 (Please use freshly prepared in vivo formulations for optimal results.)