Pseudomonas produces potassium gluconate, a simple sugar acid that is the primary antifungal metabolite. Strait AN5 provides protection against a variety of fungal diseases through biocontrol [1].

Absorption, Distribution and Excretion
Potassium is rapidly and well absorbed. A 2016 dose-response trial found that humans absorb about 94% of potassium gluconate in supplements, and this absorption rate is similar to that of potassium from potatoes.
90% of potassium is eliminated via the kidneys. A small amount is eliminated in feces and sweat.
Distribution is largely intracellular, but it is the intravascular concentration that is primarily responsible for toxicity.
Potassium is freely filtered by the glomerulus in the kidney. The majority of filtered potassium is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule and loop of Henle. Less than 10% of the filtered load reaches the distal nephron. In the proximal tubule of the nephron, potassium absorption is mainly passive and proportional to Na+ and water. K+ reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of Henle occurs through both transcellular and paracellular pathways. The transcellular component is regulated by potassium transport on the apical membrane Na+-K+-2Cl− cotransporter. The secretion of potassium begins in the early distal convoluted tubule of the nephron and progressively increases along the distal nephron into the cortical collecting duct. Most urinary K+ can be accounted for by electrogenic K+ secretion mediated by principal cells in the initial collecting duct and the cortical collecting duct. An electroneutral K+ and Cl− cotransport mechanism is also present on the apical surface of the distal nephron. Under conditions of potassium deficiency, reabsorption of the cation occurs in the collecting duct. This process is regulated by the upregulation in the apically located H+-K+-ATPase on α-intercalated cells.

[1]. Gluconic acid: an antifungal agent produced by Pseudomonas species in biological control of take-all. Phytochemistry. 2006 Mar;67(6):595-604.

Potassium gluconate is a L-alpha-D-Hepp-(1->7)-L-alpha-D-Hepp-(1->3)-L-alpha-D-Hepp-(1->5)-alpha-Kdo.
Potassium gluconate is a salt of [DB01345] and is classified as a food additive by the FDA. It is also used as a potassium supplement. Potassium is an essential nutrient. It is the most abundant cation in the intracellular fluid, where it plays a key role in maintaining cell function. In dietary supplements, potassium is often present as potassium chloride, but many other forms—including potassium citrate, phosphate, aspartate, bicarbonate, and **gluconate**—are also used. Potassium gluconate is believed to be more palatable and non-acidifying than potassium chloride (KCl).

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Drug Indication
Because of potassium’s wide-ranging roles in the body, low intakes can increase the risk of illness. Potassium supplements are indicated to prevent hypokalemia in patients who would be at particular risk if hypokalemia were to develop (e.g., digitalis treated patients with significant cardiac arrhythmias). Potassium deficiency occurs when the rate of loss through renal excretion and/or loss from the gastrointestinal tract is higher than the rate of potassium intake. In addition to serving as a preventative supplement, potassium gluconate also serves as a treatment for decreased potassium levels,,.

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Mechanism of Action
Potassium is the most abundant cation (approximately 150 to 160 mEq per liter) within human cells. Intracellular sodium content is relatively low. In the extracellular fluid, sodium predominates and the potassium content is low (3.5 to 5 mEq per liter). A membrane-bound enzyme, sodium-potassium–activated adenosinetriphosphatase (Na +K +ATPase), actively transports or pumps sodium out and potassium into cells to maintain the concentration gradients. The intracellular to extracellular potassium gradients are necessary for nerve impulse signaling in such specialized tissues as the heart, brain, and skeletal muscle, and for the maintenance of physiologic renal function and maintenance of acid-base balance. High intracellular potassium concentrations are necessary for numerous cellular metabolic processes. Intracellular K+ serves as a reservoir to limit the fall in extracellular potassium concentrations occurring under pathologic conditions with loss of potassium from the body.

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Therapeutic Uses
IRRESPECTIVE OF THE SALT USED, POTASSIUM IS COMPLETELY DISSOCIABLE & HENCE IS UNAFFECTED IN ITS IRRITANT ACTIONS & ABSORPTION BY THE ANION IN THE COMPD. /POTASSIUM SALTS/
A SOURCE OF POTASSIUM FOR MGMNT OF HYPOKALEMIC STATES, SUCH AS OCCUR CONSEQUENT TO ADRENOCORTICOID THERAPY OR USE OF THIAZIDE DIURETICS, OR FOR DELIBERATE PRODN OF HYPERKALEMIA, AS FOR TREATMENT OF DIGITALIS INTOXICATION.
...USED TO TREAT HYPOKALEMIA ASSOC WITH HYPERCHLOREMIA (EG RENAL TUBULAR ACIDOSIS, HYPOKALEMIA ASSOC WITH ACIDOSIS). IF...USED IN PT WITH HYPOKALEMIC HYPOCHLOREMIC ALKALOSIS, A SOURCE OF CHLORIDE ION (EG, AMMONIUM CHLORIDE, LYSINE MONOHYDROCHLORIDE) SHOULD BE PROVIDED. /POTASSIUM PREPN/

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Drug Warnings
SUGAR-COATED POTASSIUM GLUCONATE TABLETS DISSOLVE @ HIGHER LEVEL /IN GI TRACT/ THAN DO ENTERIC-COATED TABLETS OF POTASSIUM CHLORIDE BUT, BY THIS VERY FACT, ARE FREE TO CAUSE THE IRRITATION FOR WHICH CHLORIDE TABLET WAS COATED. /THUS/...GLUCONATE HAS NO ADVANTAGE OVER NONENTERIC-COATED POTASSIUM CHLORIDE TABLETS.
A FULL GLASS OF WATER TAKEN WITH /POTASSIUM GLUCONATE/...GREATLY REDUCES THE IRRITANT EFFECTS... HYPOCHLOREMIA IS FREQUENT ACCOMPANIMENT OF HYPOKALEMIA; IN SUCH INSTANCES /POTASSIUM/ CHLORIDE IS DEFINITELY PREFERRED /OVER POTASSIUM GLUCONATE/.
...SINCE GLUCONATE METABOLIZES TO BICARBONATE, IT CONTRIBUTES TO ALKALOSIS, WHICH MAY BE...PRESENT IN HYPOKALEMIA. THUS IT WOULD BE DIFFICULT TO FIND SITUATIONS IN WHICH GLUCONATE WOULD BE SUPERIOR /TO POTASSIUM CHLORIDE/.

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Pharmacodynamics
Potassium is an essential nutrient. It is the most abundant cation in intracellular fluid, where it plays a key role in maintaining cell function, especially in excitable cells such as skeletal muscles, the heart, and nerves. Increases in interstitial potassium play an important role in eliciting rapid vasodilation, allowing for blood flow to increase in exercising muscle.

C6H11KO7

234.25

234.014

299-27-4

D-Gluconic acid calcium hydrate;66905-23-5;D-Gluconic acid (solution);526-95-4

16760467

White to off-white solid powder

1.73 g/cm3

673.6ºC at 760 mmHg

183 °C (dec.)(lit.)

375.2ºC

5

7

5

14

176

4

C([C@H]([C@H]([C@@H]([C@H](C(=O)[O-])O)O)O)O)O.[K+]

HLCFGWHYROZGBI-JJKGCWMISA-M

InChI=1S/C6H12O7.K/c7-1-2(8)3(9)4(10)5(11)6(12)13;/h2-5,7-11H,1H2,(H,12,13);/q;+1/p-1/t2-,3-,4+,5-;/m1./s1

potassium;(2R,3S,4R,5R)-2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanoate

Kalium Gluconate; K-Iao; HSDB 3165

2934.99.9001

Powder      -20°C    3 years

                     4°C     2 years

In solvent   -80°C    6 months

                  -20°C    1 month

Note: Please store this product in a sealed and protected environment, avoid exposure to moisture.

Room temperature (This product is stable at ambient temperature for a few days during ordinary shipping and time spent in Customs)

H2O : ~100 mg/mL (~426.89 mM)
DMSO : ~1.25 mg/mL (~5.34 mM)

Note: Listed below are some common formulations that may be used to formulate products with low water solubility (e.g. < 1 mg/mL), you may test these formulations using a minute amount of products to avoid loss of samples.

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Injection Formulation 1: DMSO : Tween 80： Saline = 10 : 5 : 85 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO stock solution → 50 μL Tween 80 → 850 μL Saline)
*Preparation of saline: Dissolve 0.9 g of sodium chloride in 100 mL ddH ₂ O to obtain a clear solution.
Injection Formulation 2: DMSO : PEG300 ：Tween 80 : Saline = 10 : 40 : 5 : 45 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 400 μLPEG300 → 50 μL Tween 80 → 450 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 3: DMSO : Corn oil = 10 : 90 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 900 μL Corn oil)
Example: Take the Injection Formulation 3 (DMSO : Corn oil = 10 : 90) as an example, if 1 mL of 2.5 mg/mL working solution is to be prepared, you can take 100 μL 25 mg/mL DMSO stock solution and add to 900 μL corn oil, mix well to obtain a clear or suspension solution (2.5 mg/mL, ready for use in animals).

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Injection Formulation 4: DMSO : 20% SBE-β-CD in saline = 10 : 90 [i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 900 μL (20% SBE-β-CD in saline)]
*Preparation of 20% SBE-β-CD in Saline (4°C，1 week): Dissolve 2 g SBE-β-CD in 10 mL saline to obtain a clear solution.
Injection Formulation 5: 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin : Saline = 50 : 50 (i.e. 500 μL 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin → 500 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 6: DMSO : PEG300 : castor oil : Saline = 5 : 10 : 20 : 65 (i.e. 50 μL DMSO → 100 μLPEG300 → 200 μL castor oil → 650 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 7: Ethanol : Cremophor : Saline = 10： 10 : 80 (i.e. 100 μL Ethanol → 100 μL Cremophor → 800 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 8: Dissolve in Cremophor/Ethanol (50 : 50), then diluted by Saline
Injection Formulation 9: EtOH : Corn oil = 10 : 90 (i.e. 100 μL EtOH → 900 μL Corn oil)
Injection Formulation 10: EtOH : PEG300：Tween 80 : Saline = 10 : 40 : 5 : 45 (i.e. 100 μL EtOH → 400 μLPEG300 → 50 μL Tween 80 → 450 μL Saline)

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Oral Formulation 1: Suspend in 0.5% CMC Na (carboxymethylcellulose sodium)
Oral Formulation 2: Suspend in 0.5% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Example: Take the Oral Formulation 1 (Suspend in 0.5% CMC Na) as an example, if 100 mL of 2.5 mg/mL working solution is to be prepared, you can first prepare 0.5% CMC Na solution by measuring 0.5 g CMC Na and dissolve it in 100 mL ddH2O to obtain a clear solution; then add 250 mg of the product to 100 mL 0.5% CMC Na solution, to make the suspension solution (2.5 mg/mL, ready for use in animals).

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Oral Formulation 3: Dissolved in PEG400
Oral Formulation 4: Suspend in 0.2% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Oral Formulation 5: Dissolve in 0.25% Tween 80 and 0.5% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Oral Formulation 6: Mixing with food powders

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Note: Please be aware that the above formulations are for reference only. InvivoChem strongly recommends customers to read literature methods/protocols carefully before determining which formulation you should use for in vivo studies, as different compounds have different solubility properties and have to be formulated differently.

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 (Please use freshly prepared in vivo formulations for optimal results.)