PPARα
GW-590735 specifically targets peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα), a nuclear receptor that regulates the expression of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid metabolism, and energy homeostasis. The compound exhibits an EC50 of 4 nM on PPARα with at least 500-fold selectivity compared to PPARδ and PPARγ. By activating PPARα, GW-590735 promotes the transcription of target genes that enhance lipid catabolism and reduce triglyceride levels. Its high selectivity minimizes off-target effects on other PPAR isoforms.

The peroxisome proliferator activated receptors PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and PPARdelta are ligand-activated transcription factors that play a key role in lipid homeostasis. The fibrates raise circulating levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and lower levels of triglycerides in part through their activity as PPARalpha agonists; however, the low potency and restricted selectivity of the fibrates may limit their efficacy, and it would be desirable to develop more potent and selective PPARalpha agonists. Modification of the selective PPARdelta agonist 1 (GW501516) so as to incorporate the 2-aryl-2-methylpropionic acid group of the fibrates led to a marked shift in potency and selectivity toward PPARalpha agonism. Optimization of the series gave 25a, which shows EC50 = 4 nM on PPARalpha and at least 500-fold selectivity versus PPARdelta and PPARgamma. Compound 25a (GW590735) has been progressed to clinical trials for the treatment of diseases of lipid imbalance[1].

---

In cell-free biochemical assays, GW-590735 acts as a potent PPARα agonist with an EC50 of 4 nM. In cellular assays using PPAR-responsive reporter systems, the compound demonstrates potent activation of PPARα-mediated transcription with an EC50 of 4 nM, while showing minimal activity against PPARδ and PPARγ (at least 500-fold selectivity). These data confirm its high potency and selectivity for PPARα. The compound's activity is typically measured using luciferase reporter assays in cells transfected with PPARα expression constructs and PPAR-responsive element-driven reporter plasmids.

GW 590735 (0.5–5 mg/kg; PO twice daily for 5 days) raises HDL cholesterol and lowers LDLc and TG in an Apo-AI transgenic mouse model (human transgenic male C57BL/6 mice). APOA-II)(1). Cl, Vd, T1/2, and F% of GW 590735 (IV; 2.7 mg/kg; rat) were displayed after 2.4 hours, 1 L/kg, 5 mL/min/kg, and 47%, respectively [1]. The results of treatment with GW 590735 (IV; 2 mg/kg; dog) showed that Cl, Vd, T1/2, and F% were, respectively, 13 mL/min/kg, 2.8 L/kg, 2.6 hours, and 85% [1].

---

Specific in vivo data for GW-590735 are limited, but as a PPARα agonist, it is expected to demonstrate efficacy in animal models of dyslipidemia and metabolic syndrome. PPARα agonists are known to reduce triglyceride levels, increase HDL cholesterol, and improve insulin sensitivity in vivo. GW-590735 could be studied in high-fat diet-fed or genetically obese rodent models, with endpoints including serum lipid profiles, glucose tolerance, and tissue gene expression analysis. The compound is used for research on dyslipidemia and metabolic regulation.

The protein was then diluted to 1 mg/mL with buffer C such that the final buffer composition was 220 mM ammonium acetate, 20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 1 mM EDTA, and 1 mM DTT. The peptide SRC116 was added in a molar ratio of 1.5 as a 2 mg/100 μL DMSO stock. The ligand was then added in a 5:1 molar ratio as a 2 mg/100 μL DMSO stock and spun at 4 K for 20 min to clarify the solution before concentrating in Centriprep 10 filtration units. The solution containing the PPARα LBD-SRC1 complexes was concentrated to approximately 10 mg/mL with 80% yield[1].

---

The PPARα agonist activity is assessed using a cell-based reporter gene assay. HEK293 or COS-7 cells are co-transfected with a PPARα expression plasmid and a PPAR-responsive element (PPRE)-driven luciferase reporter plasmid. Cells are treated with GW-590735 at various concentrations (e.g., 0.01 nM to 10 μM) for 18-24 hours. Luciferase activity is measured using a luminometer, and EC50 values are calculated from dose-response curves. Selectivity is assessed by testing the compound against PPARδ and PPARγ in similar reporter assays.

The PPARα ligand binding domain (amino acids 192−468) with an N-terminal 6xHis tag was expressed using the T7 promoter of plasmid vector pRSETA. BL21(DE3) E. coli cells transformed with this expression vector were grown at 24 °C in shaker flasks for 66 h. The cells were harvested, resuspended, and lysed. The lysed cells were centrifuged, and the supernatant was loaded on a Ni-agarose column. The column was washed with 150 mL of buffer A (10% glycerol, 20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 25 mM imidazole), and the protein was eluted with a 450 mL gradient of buffer B (10% glycerol, 20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 500 mM imidazole). The protein, which eluted at 20% buffer B, was diluted with one volume of buffer C (20 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 1 mM EDTA) and loaded on a 100 mL S-Sepharose column. The column was washed with 100 mL buffer C, and the PPARα LBD protein was eluted with a 200 mL gradient of buffer D (20 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 10 mM DTT, 1 M ammonium acetate). The PPARα LBD eluted from the column at 43% buffer D. The protein yield was 9 mg/L of cells grown and was >95% pure, as determined by SDS-PAGE analysis[1].

---

Cellular assays for GW-590735 are performed using HEK293 or COS-7 cells transfected with PPARα expression constructs and PPRE-luciferase reporters. Cells are cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS at 37°C in 5% CO₂. After transfection, cells are treated with GW-590735 at various concentrations for 18-24 hours. Luciferase activity is measured using a luciferase assay kit. For specificity testing, similar assays are performed with PPARδ and PPARγ. The compound is typically dissolved in DMSO and diluted in culture media, with a final DMSO concentration ≤0.1%.

Pharmacokinetics in Rat and Dog.[1]
Compound 25a was administered to Wistar rats (n = 15) by oral gavage at dose of 3 mg/kg in pH 7 buffer, 0.1% Tween80 and by intravenous injection via the penis vein (n = 30) at a dose of 2.7 mg/kg in 10% DMSO and PEG200. Compound 25a was administered orally to male beagle dogs (n = 3) by stomach intubation at a dose of 3 mg/kg in pH 7 buffer, 0.1% Tween80 and by intravenous injection via the cephalic vein at a dose of 2 mg/kg in 10% DMSO and PEG200. Blood samples were placed on wet ice, and plasma was collected after centrifugation. Plasma samples were stored frozen at −20 °C until time of analysis. Plasma samples (0.5 mL) were diluted with 1:1 buffer (NaH2PO4, 0.1 M, pH 4) and then extracted with ethyl acetate (5 mL). The ethyl acetate was evaporated, and the residue was resuspended in 200 μL of mobile phase (water/acetonitrile/TFA; 30v/70v/0.1%). Samples were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography spectrometric analysis (LC/MS/MS). Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined by SIPHAR.

---

Apo-A-I Transgenic Mouse Model. [1]
Male C57BL/6 mice transgenic for human ApoA-I were randomized into treatment groups of n = 5 animals. Twice a day oral administration of vehicle (0.5% HPMC/1% Tween80, pH = 7.0) or indicated doses of compound as a suspension began when animals were nine weeks old and lasted for 5 days. Animals were fasted overnight before blood samples were taken by intracardiac puncture. Whole liver was collected and weighed. Blood samples were left for 30 min at 37 °C to coagulate and centrifuged 10 min at 10 000 rpm. Total serum fraction was then collected and frozen at −20 °C until use. Total cholesterol and total TG were dosed using kits 61219 and 61236, respectively, following manufacturer instructions. After 10 min of incubation at 37 °C, the colorimetric reaction was read at 492 nm with an iEMS reader. Cholesterol HDL, LDL, and VLDL fractions were separated by HPLC. Samples were diluted 1/5 in phosphate buffer (Ca++ and Mg- free) and filtered on 0.45 μm to remove excess proteins before HPLC. All changes reported with an asterisk are statistically significant (p < 0.05) as determined by one-way ANOVA analysis.

---

In vivo efficacy studies for GW-590735 would be conducted in rodent models of dyslipidemia. High-fat diet-fed mice or genetically modified models (e.g., ApoE-deficient mice) would be treated with GW-590735 via oral gavage at doses ranging from 1-30 mg/kg daily for 2-4 weeks. Blood samples would be collected for measurement of serum triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL, and LDL. Glucose tolerance tests and insulin tolerance tests may be performed. Tissues (liver, adipose, muscle) would be harvested for gene expression analysis of PPARα target genes by qPCR.

Pharmacokinetics in rats and dogs. [1] After intravenous injection of compound 25a (GW590735) (2.7 mg/kg) into rats, its tissue distribution was limited, with a volume of distribution (1 L/kg) similar to the total body fluid (0.6 L/kg). The total plasma clearance was low (5 mL/min/kg), accounting for approximately 6% of the rat hepatic blood flow. The low clearance and moderate volume of distribution resulted in a plasma half-life of 2.4 hours. After a single oral administration of 3 mg/kg of compound 25a, the maximum plasma concentration of the compound was 1461 ng/mL 1.5 hours later. The bioavailability was high (47%). After intravenous injection of compound 25a (GW590735) at a dose of 2 mg/kg, the drug had limited tissue distribution, with a volume of distribution (2.8 L/kg) greater than the total body fluid (0.6 L/kg). The total plasma clearance was moderate (13 mL/min/kg), representing approximately 35% of the canine hepatic blood flow. This moderate clearance and low volume of distribution resulted in a plasma half-life of 2.6 hours. Following a single oral administration of 3 mg/kg of the compound, the maximum plasma concentration was 1449 ng/mL 25 years later. Bioavailability was high (85%).

---

Specific pharmacokinetic data for GW-590735 are limited. As a small molecule PPARα agonist derived from the fibrate class, the compound is expected to have reasonable oral bioavailability. The compound is typically dissolved in DMSO for in vitro studies and can be formulated in suitable vehicles such as PEG400 or corn oil for in vivo administration. Pharmacokinetic studies would be required to determine parameters such as half-life, Cmax, and oral bioavailability. The compound should be stored at -20°C as a powder.

Toxicological data for GW-590735 are limited. As a research compound, comprehensive toxicology studies including acute and repeated-dose toxicity assessments have not been reported. PPARα agonists as a class (fibrates) are generally well-tolerated but can cause gastrointestinal disturbances, liver enzyme elevations, and myopathy in some cases. The compound's high selectivity for PPARα over PPARγ and PPARδ may reduce off-target effects. Standard safety precautions should be taken when handling, and the compound is for research use only, not for human therapeutic use.

[1]. Substituted 2-[(4-aminomethyl)phenoxy]-2-methylpropionic acid PPARalpha agonists. 1. Discovery of a novel series of potent HDLc raising agents. J Med Chem. 2007;50(4):685-695.

Pharmacokinetic studies in rats and dogs.
In rats, intravenous administration of compound 25a (2.7 mg/kg) resulted in limited tissue distribution, with a volume of distribution (1 L/kg) similar to the total body fluid volume (0.6 L/kg). Total plasma clearance was low (5 mL/min/kg), representing approximately 6% of the rat's hepatic blood flow. The low clearance and moderate volume of distribution resulted in a plasma half-life of 2.4 hours. Following a single oral administration of compound 25a (3 mg/kg), the maximum plasma concentration of the compound was 1461 ng/mL after 1.5 hours. Bioavailability was high (47%).
In dogs, intravenous administration of compound 25a (2 mg/kg) resulted in limited tissue distribution, with a volume of distribution (2.8 L/kg) greater than the total body fluid volume (0.6 L/kg). Total plasma clearance was moderate (13 mL/min/kg), representing approximately 35% of the canine hepatic blood flow. The moderate clearance and low volume of distribution resulted in a plasma half-life of 2.6 hours. Following a single oral administration of compound 25a (3 mg/kg), the maximum plasma concentration of the compound was 1449 ng/mL. Bioavailability was high (85%). [1]

---

In vivo pharmacology.
Several compounds in this series have shown significant in vivo activity in animal models of dyslipidemia, compound 25a being an example. Human Apo-AI transgenic mouse models are considered potentially relevant to human disease because fibrates upregulate Apo-AI expression in these models, rather than inhibiting it as observed in other rodent models. Compound 25a exhibits similar PPARα agonist potency and selectivity in mice and humans (mouse PPAR EC50, α = 15 nM; δ = 1000 nM; γ > 10000 nM). 25a was formulated as a 0.5% HPMC 100/1% Tween80 suspension at pH 7.0 and administered orally twice daily for 5 consecutive days, resulting in a dose-dependent decrease in circulating TG, VLDLc, and LDLc, while simultaneously increasing HDLc (Table 7). The ED50 for the HDL effect was approximately 1 mg/kg. Treatment also increased circulating Apo-AI levels (data not shown), consistent with the mechanism of action. As a control, fenofibrate at 50 mg/kg was tested in human Apo-AI transgenic mice. This compound produced the expected effect, reducing plasma triglycerides (TG), very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (by 43%, 64%, and 78%, respectively), while increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) (by 26%). In the Apo-AI transgenic mouse model, compound 25a reduced LDL-C and TG and increased HDL-C, indicating its significant therapeutic value in treating dyslipidemia and hypertriglyceridemia. Compound 25a (GW590735) has entered the clinical trial stage for the treatment of lipid metabolism disorders. [1]

---

Based on the selective PPARδ agonist 1, which has weak activity against PPARα, we developed a series of highly effective and selective PPARα agonists, of which compound 25a has entered the clinical evaluation stage. 25a has excellent potency and PPAR subtype selectivity, indicating that the compound has significantly improved therapeutic effects than fibrates in the treatment of dyslipidemia and hypertriglyceridemia.

---

GW-590735 is a potent and selective PPARα agonist with an EC50 of 4 nM and at least 500-fold selectivity over PPARδ and PPARγ. It is derived from modification of the PPARδ agonist GW501516 to incorporate fibrate-like structural features. The compound is used in research on dyslipidemia and metabolic disorders. No clinical trials or regulatory approvals exist. For research use only.

C23H21F3N2O4S

478.49

478.117

C, 57.73; H, 4.42; F, 11.91; N, 5.85; O, 13.37; S, 6.70

343321-96-0

343321-96-0

9956726

White to off-white solid powder

1.3±0.1 g/cm3

1.572

5.22

2

9

7

33

690

0

CC1=C(SC(C2=CC=C(C(F)(F)F)C=C2)=N1)C(NCC3=CC=C(OC(C)(C(O)=O)C)C=C3)=O

ILUPZUOBHCUBKB-UHFFFAOYSA-N

InChI=1S/C23H21F3N2O4S/c1-13-18(33-20(28-13)15-6-8-16(9-7-15)23(24,25)26)19(29)27-12-14-4-10-17(11-5-14)32-22(2,3)21(30)31/h4-11H,12H2,1-3H3,(H,27,29)(H,30,31)

2-methyl-2-[4-[[[4-methyl-2-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-1,3-thiazole-5-carbonyl]amino]methyl]phenoxy]propanoic acid

GW 590735; GW-590735;343321-96-0; 622402-22-6; GW590735; GW-590735; 2-methyl-2-(4-((4-methyl-2-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)thiazole-5-carboxamido)methyl)phenoxy)propanoic acid; QKY617BBX5; CHEMBL219586; GW590735

2934.99.9001

Powder      -20°C    3 years

                     4°C     2 years

In solvent   -80°C    6 months

                  -20°C    1 month

Note: This product requires protection from light (avoid light exposure) during transportation and storage.

Room temperature (This product is stable at ambient temperature for a few days during ordinary shipping and time spent in Customs)

DMSO: ~250 mg/mL (~522.5 mM)

Note: Listed below are some common formulations that may be used to formulate products with low water solubility (e.g. < 1 mg/mL), you may test these formulations using a minute amount of products to avoid loss of samples.

---

Injection Formulation 1: DMSO : Tween 80： Saline = 10 : 5 : 85 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO stock solution → 50 μL Tween 80 → 850 μL Saline)
*Preparation of saline: Dissolve 0.9 g of sodium chloride in 100 mL ddH ₂ O to obtain a clear solution.
Injection Formulation 2: DMSO : PEG300 ：Tween 80 : Saline = 10 : 40 : 5 : 45 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 400 μLPEG300 → 50 μL Tween 80 → 450 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 3: DMSO : Corn oil = 10 : 90 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 900 μL Corn oil)
Example: Take the Injection Formulation 3 (DMSO : Corn oil = 10 : 90) as an example, if 1 mL of 2.5 mg/mL working solution is to be prepared, you can take 100 μL 25 mg/mL DMSO stock solution and add to 900 μL corn oil, mix well to obtain a clear or suspension solution (2.5 mg/mL, ready for use in animals).

View More

Injection Formulation 4: DMSO : 20% SBE-β-CD in saline = 10 : 90 [i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 900 μL (20% SBE-β-CD in saline)]
*Preparation of 20% SBE-β-CD in Saline (4°C，1 week): Dissolve 2 g SBE-β-CD in 10 mL saline to obtain a clear solution.
Injection Formulation 5: 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin : Saline = 50 : 50 (i.e. 500 μL 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin → 500 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 6: DMSO : PEG300 : castor oil : Saline = 5 : 10 : 20 : 65 (i.e. 50 μL DMSO → 100 μLPEG300 → 200 μL castor oil → 650 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 7: Ethanol : Cremophor : Saline = 10： 10 : 80 (i.e. 100 μL Ethanol → 100 μL Cremophor → 800 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 8: Dissolve in Cremophor/Ethanol (50 : 50), then diluted by Saline
Injection Formulation 9: EtOH : Corn oil = 10 : 90 (i.e. 100 μL EtOH → 900 μL Corn oil)
Injection Formulation 10: EtOH : PEG300：Tween 80 : Saline = 10 : 40 : 5 : 45 (i.e. 100 μL EtOH → 400 μLPEG300 → 50 μL Tween 80 → 450 μL Saline)

---

Oral Formulation 1: Suspend in 0.5% CMC Na (carboxymethylcellulose sodium)
Oral Formulation 2: Suspend in 0.5% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Example: Take the Oral Formulation 1 (Suspend in 0.5% CMC Na) as an example, if 100 mL of 2.5 mg/mL working solution is to be prepared, you can first prepare 0.5% CMC Na solution by measuring 0.5 g CMC Na and dissolve it in 100 mL ddH2O to obtain a clear solution; then add 250 mg of the product to 100 mL 0.5% CMC Na solution, to make the suspension solution (2.5 mg/mL, ready for use in animals).

View More

Oral Formulation 3: Dissolved in PEG400
Oral Formulation 4: Suspend in 0.2% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Oral Formulation 5: Dissolve in 0.25% Tween 80 and 0.5% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Oral Formulation 6: Mixing with food powders

---

Note: Please be aware that the above formulations are for reference only. InvivoChem strongly recommends customers to read literature methods/protocols carefully before determining which formulation you should use for in vivo studies, as different compounds have different solubility properties and have to be formulated differently.

---

 (Please use freshly prepared in vivo formulations for optimal results.)