Human Endogenous Metabolite

Glucose is a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms and an aldehyde group and is therefore referred to as an aldohexose. The glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) and ring (cyclic) form, the latter being the result of an intramolecular reaction between the aldehyde C atom and the C-5 hydroxyl group to form an intramolecular hemiacetal. In water solution both forms are in equilibrium and at pH 7 the cyclic one is the predominant. Glucose is a primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. In animals glucose arises from the breakdown of glycogen in a process known as glycogenolysis. Glucose is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as pyruvate and glycerol, by a process known as gluconeogenesis.

Toxicity Overview
Untreated patients with diabetes (type 1 or 2) have extremely high serum glucose levels. Prolonged excessive glucose can have toxic effects on the structure and function of many cells and organs, including pancreatic and islet cells. Several biochemical pathways and mechanisms of glucose toxicity have been proposed, including glyceraldehyde autoxidation, protein kinase C activation, methylglyoxal formation and glycation, hexosamine metabolism, sorbitol formation, and oxidative phosphorylation. All these pathways share the commonality of generating reactive oxygen species (ROS). Excessive and prolonged ROS can lead to chronic oxidative stress, resulting in defective insulin gene expression, decreased insulin secretion, and increased apoptosis. Endothelial cell exposure to a high glucose environment leads to ROS-activated poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase poly(ADP-ribose)-polymerization of GAPDH, thereby inhibiting GAPDH expression. Three products of glucose metabolism (glyoxal, methylglyoxal, and 3-deoxyglucose ketone) react with amino groups on intracellular and extracellular proteins to form advanced glycation end products (AGEs). AGEs play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of secondary complications of diabetes, particularly in microvascular disease of the retina, nerves, kidneys, and pancreas. Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) is a particularly important AGE. For every 1% increase in absolute HbA1c concentration, the risk of cardiovascular disease increases by approximately 10-20%. Health Impacts: High blood sugar (>7 mM) can cause symptoms such as frequent urination, thirst, and increased hunger. Prolonged hyperglycemia (i.e., untreated diabetes) can lead to a variety of complications. Acute complications include diabetic ketoacidosis (characterized by nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and acetone-smelling breath) and nonketotic hyperosmolar coma. Serious long-term complications include heart disease, stroke, kidney failure, foot ulcers, and eye damage. Major long-term complications are related to vascular damage. Diabetes doubles the risk of cardiovascular disease, and approximately 75% of deaths in people with diabetes are caused by coronary artery disease. Other "macrovascular" diseases include stroke and peripheral vascular disease. Major microvascular complications of diabetes include damage to the eyes, kidneys, and nerves. Eye damage, specifically diabetic retinopathy, is caused by damage to the blood vessels in the retina and can lead to gradual vision loss and even blindness. Kidney damage, specifically diabetic nephropathy, can lead to tissue scarring, proteinuria, and eventually chronic kidney disease, sometimes requiring dialysis or a kidney transplant. Diabetic neuropathy, or damage to the nerves in the body, is the most common complication of diabetes. Symptoms include numbness, tingling, pain, and abnormal pain sensations, and may cause skin lesions. Diabetes-related foot problems (such as diabetic foot ulcers) can also occur and are difficult to treat, sometimes requiring amputation. Gestational diabetes can harm the health of the fetus or the mother. Risks to the infant include macrosomia (high birth weight), congenital heart and central nervous system abnormalities, and skeletal muscle deformities. Elevated fetal insulin levels may inhibit the production of pulmonary surfactant in the fetus, leading to respiratory distress syndrome. Hyperbilirubinemia may be due to the destruction of red blood cells.

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Adverse Reactions
Asthma - Reversible bronchoconstriction (narrowing of the bronchioles) caused by inhalation of irritants or allergens. Treatment includes a healthy diet, physical activity, smoking cessation, and maintaining a healthy weight. Blood pressure control and proper foot care are also important for patients. Type 1 diabetes must be controlled with insulin injections. Type 2 diabetes can be treated with medication, with or without insulin.

[1]. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/64689

β-D-glucose is d-glucose pyranose with a β-configuration of its anomeric carbon atom. It is an epitope and a metabolite in mice. It is the enantiomer of β-L-glucose. It is a major energy source for organisms. β-D-glucose is naturally found in fruits and other parts of plants, existing in a free state. It can be used for treatment with fluids and nutritional supplements.
Glucose oxidase has been studied for the treatment of upper respiratory tract infections.
β-D-glucose is a metabolite found in or produced by Escherichia coli (K12 strain, MG1655 strain).
(2R,3R,4S,5S,6R)-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxacyclohexane-2,3,4,5-tetraol has been reported in hops, Acer rubrum, and other organisms with relevant data.
β-D-glucose pyranose is the β-isomer of D-glucose pyranose, a simple synthetic monosaccharide that can be used as an energy source. D-glucan can be oxidized in various tissues under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions via glycolysis, producing carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. Yeast polysaccharide is an insoluble β-1,3-glucan derived from the yeast cell wall and is a structural component with potential immunostimulatory activity. After administration, yeast polysaccharide can target, bind to, and activate certain Toll-like receptors, primarily TLR2 on leukocytes and dectin-1 on macrophages. Activation of TLR2 and dectin-1 can stimulate the release of pro-inflammatory mediators and enhance the innate immune response. β-D-glucan is a metabolite found or produced in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. See also: Gel polysaccharide (note moved to); Yeast polysaccharide (note moved to).

C6H12O6

180.16

180.063

492-61-5

26874-89-5;133947-06-5

64689

White to light yellow solid powder

1.7±0.1 g/cm3

410.8±45.0 °C at 760 mmHg

156-158ºC

202.2±28.7 °C

0.0±2.2 mmHg at 25°C

1.635

-1.88

5

6

1

12

151

5

C([C@@H]1[C@H]([C@@H]([C@H]([C@@H](O1)O)O)O)O)O

WQZGKKKJIJFFOK-VFUOTHLCSA-N

InChI=1S/C6H12O6/c7-1-2-3(8)4(9)5(10)6(11)12-2/h2-11H,1H2/t2-,3-,4+,5-,6-/m1/s1

(2R,3R,4S,5S,6R)-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-2,3,4,5-tetrol

beta-D-glucose; beta-D-glucopyranose; 492-61-5; beta-glucose; CHEBI:15903; J4R00M814D; Beta-D-glucose anhydrous; Beta-d-glucose, anhydrous;

2934.99.9001

Powder      -20°C    3 years

                     4°C     2 years

In solvent   -80°C    6 months

                  -20°C    1 month

Note: (1). This product requires protection from light (avoid light exposure) during transportation and storage.  (2). Please store this product in a sealed and protected environment (e.g. under nitrogen), avoid exposure to moisture.

Room temperature (This product is stable at ambient temperature for a few days during ordinary shipping and time spent in Customs)

H2O: 125 mg/mL (693.83 mM)

Note: Listed below are some common formulations that may be used to formulate products with low water solubility (e.g. < 1 mg/mL), you may test these formulations using a minute amount of products to avoid loss of samples.

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Injection Formulation 1: DMSO : Tween 80： Saline = 10 : 5 : 85 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO stock solution → 50 μL Tween 80 → 850 μL Saline)
*Preparation of saline: Dissolve 0.9 g of sodium chloride in 100 mL ddH ₂ O to obtain a clear solution.
Injection Formulation 2: DMSO : PEG300 ：Tween 80 : Saline = 10 : 40 : 5 : 45 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 400 μLPEG300 → 50 μL Tween 80 → 450 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 3: DMSO : Corn oil = 10 : 90 (i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 900 μL Corn oil)
Example: Take the Injection Formulation 3 (DMSO : Corn oil = 10 : 90) as an example, if 1 mL of 2.5 mg/mL working solution is to be prepared, you can take 100 μL 25 mg/mL DMSO stock solution and add to 900 μL corn oil, mix well to obtain a clear or suspension solution (2.5 mg/mL, ready for use in animals).

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Injection Formulation 4: DMSO : 20% SBE-β-CD in saline = 10 : 90 [i.e. 100 μL DMSO → 900 μL (20% SBE-β-CD in saline)]
*Preparation of 20% SBE-β-CD in Saline (4°C，1 week): Dissolve 2 g SBE-β-CD in 10 mL saline to obtain a clear solution.
Injection Formulation 5: 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin : Saline = 50 : 50 (i.e. 500 μL 2-Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin → 500 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 6: DMSO : PEG300 : castor oil : Saline = 5 : 10 : 20 : 65 (i.e. 50 μL DMSO → 100 μLPEG300 → 200 μL castor oil → 650 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 7: Ethanol : Cremophor : Saline = 10： 10 : 80 (i.e. 100 μL Ethanol → 100 μL Cremophor → 800 μL Saline)
Injection Formulation 8: Dissolve in Cremophor/Ethanol (50 : 50), then diluted by Saline
Injection Formulation 9: EtOH : Corn oil = 10 : 90 (i.e. 100 μL EtOH → 900 μL Corn oil)
Injection Formulation 10: EtOH : PEG300：Tween 80 : Saline = 10 : 40 : 5 : 45 (i.e. 100 μL EtOH → 400 μLPEG300 → 50 μL Tween 80 → 450 μL Saline)

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Oral Formulation 1: Suspend in 0.5% CMC Na (carboxymethylcellulose sodium)
Oral Formulation 2: Suspend in 0.5% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Example: Take the Oral Formulation 1 (Suspend in 0.5% CMC Na) as an example, if 100 mL of 2.5 mg/mL working solution is to be prepared, you can first prepare 0.5% CMC Na solution by measuring 0.5 g CMC Na and dissolve it in 100 mL ddH2O to obtain a clear solution; then add 250 mg of the product to 100 mL 0.5% CMC Na solution, to make the suspension solution (2.5 mg/mL, ready for use in animals).

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Oral Formulation 3: Dissolved in PEG400
Oral Formulation 4: Suspend in 0.2% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Oral Formulation 5: Dissolve in 0.25% Tween 80 and 0.5% Carboxymethyl cellulose
Oral Formulation 6: Mixing with food powders

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Note: Please be aware that the above formulations are for reference only. InvivoChem strongly recommends customers to read literature methods/protocols carefully before determining which formulation you should use for in vivo studies, as different compounds have different solubility properties and have to be formulated differently.

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 (Please use freshly prepared in vivo formulations for optimal results.)