FIPV ( EC50 = 0.78 μM ); RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp)

In vitro activity: The cells exhibit normal growth and appearance across all GS-441524 concentrations; however, they are unable to absorb the fluorescent dye CellTox Green after 24 hours. Hence, the cytotoxic concentration at 50% (CC50) is greater than 100 μM. It is calculated that GS-441524 has an effective concentration of 50% (EC50) of 0.78 μM[1].

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Combined application of GC376 and GS441524 has an enhanced ability to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 in Vero E6 cells [5]
We evaluated the inhibitory efficacy of GC376, GS441524 and the combined application of GC376 and GS441524 (molar ratio: 1:1) (GC376 + GS441524) on the replication of live virus (SARS-CoV-2: HRB26 and HRB26M) in Vero E6 cells. We first tested the cellular cytotoxicity of these compounds in vitro. GC376 and GS441524 did not produce obvious cytotoxicity at concentrations up to 250 μM in Vero E6 cells (CC50 > 250 μM; Supplementary Figure 3). Our results showed that GC376 and GS441524 were efficacious against HRB26, with 50% inhibitory concentration (EC50) values of 0.643 ± 0.085 μM and 5.188 ± 2.476 μM, respectively (Figure 2A, B). GC376 and GS441524 were also efficacious against HRB26M, with EC50 values of 0.881 ± 0.109 μM and 5.047 ± 2.116 μM, respectively (Figure 2D, E). Our results showed that the ability of GC376 to inhibit viral (HRB26 and HRB26M) replication was better than GS441524 when the agents were applied alone. We observed that the GC376 + GS441524 more effectively inhibited HRB26 and HRB26M replication than single treatment, with EC50 values of 0.531 ± 0.162 μM and 0.369 ± 0.068 μM, respectively (Figure 2C, F). In the replication process of coronavirus, Mpro is one of the first nsps processed by the polyprotein, and other replication-related proteins, such as RdRp, can be produced with the participation of Mpro and PLP proteases [8,9]. This phenomenon may be the reason why GC376 is better than GS441524, and their combined application may result in a synergistic effect because these agents target different proteins involved in virus replication.

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In vitro antiviral activity of GS441524 and GC376 in patients infected with feline infectious peritonitis virus [6]
To evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of oral GC376 and GS441524, we investigated the antiviral activity of these two drugs in feline kidney (CRFK) cells. GC376 and GS441524 were tested for their ability to inhibit FIPV-rQS79 and FIPV II multiplication using CCK-8 assays. Our laboratory previously constructed a recombinant virus designated FIPV-rQS79, which has been demonstrated to cause 100% mortality in vivo(Delaplace et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021). We confirmed the antiviral activity of GC376 and GS441524 against FIPV-rQS79 and FIPV II. CRFK cells were typically cultured with drug and virus for 48 h. Both GC376 and GS441524 showed effects against FIPV II, with EC50 values of 0.9 μM and 2.142 μM, respectively (Fig. 1 A and D). The EC50 values previously reported for FIPV were 0.78 μM (Murphy et al., 2018) and 0.3 μM (Pedersen et al., 2018), respectively. GC376 and GS441524 also inhibited FIPV-rQS79, with EC50 values of 1.239 μM and 2.52 μM (Fig. 1B and E), respectively. The possible cytotoxicity of GC376 and GS441524 were determined by CCK-8 assay. Neither of the compounds showed obvious cytotoxicity at any of the concentrations up to 100 μM in CRFK cells (Fig. 1 C and F). Anti-FIPV potency in infected cells treated with GC376 and GS441524 at serial dilutions was verified using an immunofluorescence assay 12 h after infection (Fig. 1 G). Compared with positive controls, no obvious pathological changes were observed when cells were incubated with 1.25 μM GS441524 or 2.5 μM GC376 (Fig. 1 G) for 24 h after FIPV-rQS79 and FIPV II infection. Our results indicated that GS441524 and GC376 effectively inhibited FIPV-rQS79 and FIPV II infection in CRFK cells.

The lymphocyte counts and rectal temperatures of all ten treated cats quickly return to pre-infection levels, as do the levels of the two asymptomatic cats. As of now, more than eight months after infection, none of the ten cats who received one or two treatments have changed. Some cats experience a brief "stinging" reaction after receiving an injection within ten seconds of the compound being administered. Unusual posturing, licking at the injection site, and/or vocalizations that persist for about 30 to 60 seconds following injection are signs of localized and temporary pain. Certain animals exhibit more noticeable injection reactions than others, and these reactions vary from injection to injection and become less pronounced over time[1].
GS-441524 is found in serum at 1000-fold higher concentrations than Remdesivir in NHP after receiving Remdesivi (IV injection) for a 7-day period of treatment[3].

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GC376, a dipeptidyl bisulfite adduct salt, it is an inhibitor of 3CLpro (3C-like protease) with potent antiviral and coronavirus activity, notably against SARS-CoV.The unprecedented coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is a serious threat to global public health. Development of effective therapies against SARS-CoV-2 is urgently needed. Here, we evaluated the antiviral activity of a remdesivir parent nucleotide analog, GS441524, which targets the coronavirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzyme, and a feline coronavirus prodrug, GC376, which targets its main protease, using a mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 infected mouse model. Our results showed that GS441524 effectively blocked the proliferation of SARS-CoV-2 in the mouse upper and lower respiratory tracts via combined intranasal (i.n.) and intramuscular (i.m.) treatment. However, the ability of high-dose GC376 (i.m. or i.n. and i.m.) was weaker than GS441524. Notably, low-dose combined application of GS441524 with GC376 could effectively protect mice against SARS-CoV-2 infection via i.n. or i.n. and i.m. treatment. Moreover, we found that the pharmacokinetic properties of GS441524 is better than GC376, and combined application of GC376 and GS441524 had a synergistic effect. Our findings support the further evaluation of the combined application of GC376 and GS441524 in future clinical studies[5].

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Oral GS441524 and GC376 were effective in the FIPV model [6]
Based on the GS441524 and GC376 PK analysis data, we selected various oral dosing regimens. In this phase, we evaluated the antiviral activity of different oral doses of GS441524 (5 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg) and GC376 (15 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 150 mg/kg) against FIPV-rQS79 in vivo. Cats were randomly assigned to eight groups (n = 3) for oral inoculation with FIPV-rQS79. We inoculated the cats with FIPV-rQS79 at a dose of 105 TCID50. All cats inoculated with virus showed symptoms including fever and dramatic weight loss at the time of GS441524 treatment. After inoculation with the virus, the animal body weight gradually decreased, and after treatment, the body weight gradually increased, as shown in Fig. 3A. After treatment intervention, fever symptoms in the cats were significantly reduced, and their body temperatures gradually returned to the normal range, as shown in Fig. 3B. The clinical scores of the patients increased significantly after inoculation, and after GS441524 treatment, the clinical scores decreased gradually; specifically, the patients in the group treated with GS441524 had milder symptoms than the patients in the positive control group (Fig. 3C). During the observation period, the infected cats in all groups treated with GS441524 (5 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg) had significantly improved survival rates compared with infected cats in the untreated control group (P < 0.05). GS441524 doses of 20 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg provided the greatest protection, with 100% protection. A GS441524 dosage of 5 mg/kg/day provided 66% protection (Fig. 3D). The results showed that 5 mg/kg GS441524 given orally was effective, although it did not completely protect patients with FIPV infection.

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Thirty days of GS441524 treatment at three dosages and GC376 at a dosage of 150 mg/kg PO q 24 h prevented FIP-associated mortality in the FIPV-rQS79 infection animal model [6]
Twenty cats were exposed to FIPV-rQS79, and their response to GS441524 and GC376 treatment was monitored after the disease signs appeared (Fig. 9). Approximately one week after inoculation with the virus, most cats had clinical symptoms. GS441524 and GC376 by different dose treatment 30 days, some of cats return healthy, but four of them treated by oral administration had disease recurrence at five to six weeks posttreatment, and two of them presented with severe neurological symptoms characterized by unequal pupil size and inability to control the hind legs. Except for the cats with recurrent disease, the remaining cats treated once remained normal after two months.

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Compared with oral or subcutaneous GC376, GS441524 exhibited more advantages in pharmacokinetic parameters [6]
To illustrate the differences in the effect of oral treatments with GC376 or GS441524, the pharmacokinetic parameters of GS441524 in this study are shown in Table 1, Table 2. Compared with GC376, GS441524 had a longer clearance time. When the GC376 plasma concentration after subcutaneous injection reached Cmax (18000 ηg/mL), it took approximately 8 h for levels to drop below the effective concentration. But GS441524 after subcutaneous injection was 2000 ηg/mL, and approximately 12 h after dosing, the concentration was reduced to a level below the effective concentration. Although GC376 has a higher AUC (0-∞) than GS441524, its mean residence time (MRT) is also relatively short, indicating that it is more easily metabolized than GS441524.

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The unprecedented coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is a serious threat to global public health. Development of effective therapies against SARS-CoV-2 is urgently needed. Here, we evaluated the antiviral activity of a remdesivir parent nucleotide analog, GS441524, which targets the coronavirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzyme, and a feline coronavirus prodrug, GC376, which targets its main protease, using a mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 infected mouse model. Our results showed that GS441524 effectively blocked the proliferation of SARS-CoV-2 in the mouse upper and lower respiratory tracts via combined intranasal (i.n.) and intramuscular (i.m.) treatment. However, the ability of high-dose GC376 (i.m. or i.n. and i.m.) was weaker than GS441524. Notably, low-dose combined application of GS441524 with GC376 could effectively protect mice against SARS-CoV-2 infection via i.n. or i.n. and i.m. treatment. Moreover, we found that the pharmacokinetic properties of GS441524 is better than GC376, and combined application of GC376 and GS441524 had a synergistic effect. Our findings support the further evaluation of the combined application of GC376 and GS441524 in future clinical studies [5].

There are several methods for measuring the RdRP Enzymatic Activity of inhibitors as detailed below: [4]
Biochemical RdRP Enzyme Activity Assays
(1) Polymerase Elongation Template Element (PETE) Assay for RdRP
Because RdRP catalyzes the incorporation of NTPs during RNA elongation, a PETE assay can be developed to detect the elongation activity of RdRP.46 In this assay approach, an oligonucleotide at the 5′ end of an RNA template is labeled with a fluorescent probe for fluorescence polarization (FP) measurements. The polarization signal from the fluorescent probe increases as its mobility becomes low following the elongation of the newly synthesized complementary RNA chain by RdRP. Inhibition of RdRP activity by a compound reduces the FP signal as the elongation of the complementary RNA chain stops.
(2) Fluorescence-Based Alkaline Phosphatase–Coupled Polymerase Assay (FAPA)
The FAPA approach includes a modified nucleotide analog in the substrate system during RNA synthesis by RdRP. As the polymerase reaction proceeds, incorporation of modified nucleotide analog results in the release of the fluorophore, allowing detection. For example, a modified nucleotide analog (2-[2-benzothiazoyl]-6-hydroxybenzothiazole) conjugated adenosine triphosphate (BBT-ATP) incorporated into the growing RNA chain was catalyzed by RdRP, resulting in a by-product of BBT, pyrophosphate (PPi). The BBTPPi subsequently was reacted with alkaline phosphatase to produce a highly fluorescent BBT anion.
(3) Fluorometric RdRP Activity Assay
Fluorophores have been extensively used for the detection of RNA and DNA. In this fluorometric RdRP activity assay, fluorophores are used to detect dsRNA formation from the ssRNA template (Fig. 3C). One application of this assay was to screen the inhibitors of hepatitis C virus (HCV) RdRP.51 By using a poly(C) RNA template, HCV RdRP catalyzed the primer-independent synthesis of dsRNA that was detected by fluorescent dye PicoGreen.51 PicoGreen was originally developed to quantify dsDNA, but it was subsequently found to also preferentially bind dsRNA instead of ssRNA.51 This assay can be easily adapted to compound screening for RdRP inhibitors for many types of viruses. In addition to PicoGreen, other fluorophores have also been used to distinguish dsRNA from ssRNA, and they are useful for this type of RdRP assay.
(4) Scintillation Proximity Assay (SPA)
SPA has also been used in RdRP enzyme assays for HTS. This assay relies on the incorporation of radioactive nucleotides to the newly synthesized RNA chain catalyzed by RdRP using a biotinylated primer-template in the presence of 3H-GTP. Application of streptavidin-coupled SPA detection beads in this radioactive enzyme assay enables homogeneous assay detection that avoids the labor-intensive filtration and washing steps from the original radioactive NTP incorporation assay. Because they are radioactive assays, however, specific safety precautions and waste handling are required that may be inconvenient and require enhanced safety protocols. Therefore, most radioactive assays have been replaced by fluorometric assays in recent years.

GS-441524 is treated with 100, 33.3, 11.1, 3.7, or 1.2 μM for a 24-hour period on CRFK cells in order to assess its toxicity[1].

Evaluation of antiviral activity in Vero e6 cells[5]
Cell viability was determined using the Cell Titer-Glo kit following the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, Vero E6 cells were seeded in 96-well plates with opaque walls. After 12–16 h, the indicated concentrations of GC376 (0, 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500 µM), GS441524 (0, 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500 µM) and GC376 + GS441524 (0, 0.5, 2.5, 5, 25, 50, 250 µM) were added for 24 h. Cell Titer-Glo reagent was added to each well, and luminescence was measured using a GloMax 96 Microplate Luminometer.

Antiviral activity experiment was determined following a previous method. Briefly, Vero E6 cells were pretreated with the indicated concentrations of GC376 (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 µM), GS441524 (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 µM) and GC376 + GS441524 (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 µM) or with vehicle solution (12% sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin, pH 3.5) alone for 1 h. The cells were then infected with HRB26 or HRB26M at an MOI of 0.005 and incubated for 1 h at 37°C. The cells were washed with PBS, and virus growth medium containing the indicated amounts of GC376, GS441524 and GC376 + GS441524 or vehicle solution alone was added. The supernatants were collected at 24 h p.i. for viral titration by a PFU assay in Vero E6 cells. Relative viral titres were calculated on the basis of the ratios to the viral titres in the mock-treated counterparts. The data were analyzed using GraphPad Prism 7.0. The results are shown as the mean values with standard deviations of three independent experiments.

In 96-well clear flat-bottom plates, Vero E6 cells (3000 cells/well) were seeded and incubated for 24 hours at 37°C with 5% CO₂. Following incubation, a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 0.1 was used to infect cells. Adsorption of SARS-CoV-2 was allowed to occur for one hour at 37°C. After the virus inoculum was removed, the cells were covered with media that contained molnupiravir (0.62–50 μM), nirmatrelvir (0.62–50 μM), and GC376 (0.21–16.7 μM) diluted three times. Every plate contained mock-infected cells, infected positive controls (SARS-CoV-2 alone), and negative controls (compounds alone). Following 48 and 72 hours of incubation at 37°C with 5% CO₂, the viability of the cells was assessed using the MTT reduction assay.

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Cytotoxicity of GS441524 and GC376 in CRFK cells[6]
CRFK cells were seeded into a 96-well plate and grown in DMEM (Gibco, USA) containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). When the cells had formed monolayers, the medium was replaced by 2% FBS and different concentrations of GC376 (0.3125 µM, 0.625 µM, 1.25 µM and 2.5 µM) or GS441524 (0.3125 µM, 0.625 µM, 1.25 µM and 2.5 µM). DMEM containing 0.4% DMSO was used as the blank control. The cells were incubated for 48 h at 37 °C under an atmosphere containing 5% CO2 and then washed twice with phosphate buffered saline (PBS). FBS-free MEM (100 µL) and CCK-8 (10 µL) were then added, and the cells were incubated at 37 °C for 1–4 h. A FLUOstar Omega was used to read the optical density (OD) at 450 nm. Cell viability was calculated using the following equation:
Cell viability = [OD (compound) - OD (blank)] / [OD (control) - OD(blank)] × 100%·
The EC50 values were calculated using GraphPad Prism software version 8.0.2.

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The antiviral effects of GC376 and GS441524 against FIPV-rQS79 and FIPV II in vitro, (0.01 MOI) were assessed; different concentrations of GC376 or GS441524 were added to 96-well plates containing monolayers of CRFK cells, and the cells were incubated at 37 °C under an atmosphere containing 5% CO2 for 28 h. Each drug concentration was tested in five replicate wells, and 0.4% DMSO was used as the blank control. EC50 values were determined by CCK-8 assay.

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Indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA)[6]
Immunofluorescence analysis of FIPV N protein expression during FIPV infection and in GS441524- and GC376-treated CRFK cells was performed by seeding cells on glass cover slips and allowing growth until they reached 50% membrane fusion. Briefly, CRFK cell monolayers on cover slips were inoculated with FIPV II or FIPV-rQS79 (MOI =0.01) for 24 h at 37 °C. After washing with PBS, we fixed CRFK cells in 4% paraformaldehyde for 20 min, followed by permeabilization in 0.3% Triton-X-100 for 30 min at room temperature and blocking with 5% BSA for 30 min at 37 °C. After washing with PBS, we incubated the cells with anti-FIPV N monoclonal antibody overnight at 4 °C. After washing with PBS Tween-20 (PBST) 3 times, we then incubated the cells with goat anti-rabbit 488 (1:1000) for 1.5 h at 37 °C. We followed this incubation with another incubation for 15 min with DAPI (1:1000) at room temperature. The triple-stained cells were then washed three times with PBST, and we captured images for analysis under high magnification.

Cats: Three days after unambiguous clinical evidence of FIP (days 12-19 post infection), the 10 cats that showed disease signs were split into two groups and treated with either 5 mg/kg (Group A; n=5) or 2 mg/kg (Group B; n=5) GS-441524 SC q24 h. The two cats that do not show any symptoms of the disease act as controls for normal rectal temperature and blood lymphocyte counts[1].

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\n\n\nIn vivo toxicity study of GC376 and GS441524[5]
\nThe toxicity studies were performed in 4- to 6-week-old female BALB/c mice. BALB/c mice were assigned to four groups (five mice per group), one mock group (i.m. administration of solvent) and three i.m. administered groups: GC376 (40 mM/l, 100 µl), GS441524 (40 mM/l, 100 µl) and GC376 + GS441524 (20 mM/l, 100 µl), respectively. Mice in the mock and experimental groups were weighed daily for 15 days. In addition, blood samples were collected at 0, 5, 10 and 15 days after administration. Various blood chemistry values or blood cell counts were performed at Wuhan Servicebio Biological Technology Co., Ltd. The data were analyzed using GraphPad Prism 7.0.

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\n\nIn vivo antiviral study of GC376 and GS441524[5]
\nFirstly, groups of six 4- to 6-week-old female BALB/c mice were treated i.m. with a loading dose of GC376 (40 or 8 mM/l, 100 µl), GS441524 (40 or 8 mM/l, 100 µl) and GC376 + GS441524 (20 or 4 mM/l, 100 µl), followed by a daily maintenance dose. Alternatively, mice were treated intranasally with a single treatment (GC376, 20 mM/l, 50 µl; GS441524, 20 mM/l, 50 µl; GC376 + GS441524, 10 mM/l, 50 µl) or a combination of GC376 (20 mM/l, 50 µl, i.n. and 40 mM/l, 100 µl, i.m.), GS441524 (20 mM/l, 50 µl, i.n. and 40 mM/l, 100 µl, i.m.) and GC376 + GS441524 (10 mM/l, 50 µl, i.n. and 20 mM/l, 100 µl, i.m.), followed by a daily maintenance dose. As a control, mice were administered vehicle solution (12% sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin, pH 3.5) daily. One hour after administration of the loading dose of GC376, GS441524 and GC376 + GS441524 or vehicle solution, each mouse was inoculated intranasally with103.6 PFU of HRB26M in 50 μl. Three mice from each group were euthanized on days 3 and 5 p.i. The nasal turbinates and lungs were collected for viral detection by qPCR and PFU assay according to previously described methods]. The amount of vRNA for the target SARS-CoV-2 N gene was normalized to the standard curve from a plasmid containing the full-length cDNA of the SARS-CoV-2 N gene. The assay sensitivity was 1000 copies/ml. The data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2016 and GraphPad Prism 7.0.

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\n\nPharmacokinetics study of GC376 and GS441524 in BALB/c mice and SD rats[5]
\nHealthy SPF BALB/c mice (7-8 weeks) and SD rats (4-6 weeks) were used in a single-dose PK study. At time point zero, the BALB/c mice and SD rats of groups A, B and C (each group including twenty BABL/c mice or five SD rats) received i.m. injections of GC376 (111 mg/kg), GS441524 (67 mg/kg) and GC376 + GS441524 (55.5 + 33.5 mg/kg), which are the same doses according to in vivo antiviral study. The blood was collected at 0, 0.083, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12 and 24 h and placed in a precooled polypropylene centrifuge tube containing 3.0 µl of 40% EDTAK2. Then, the whole blood was centrifuged at 7800 g/min for 10 min at 4°C. Plasma was collected and stored in a freezer at −80°C. Plasma drug concentration was analyzed using LC-MS/MS. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated using WinNonlin software (version 6.4), and a non-atrioventricular model was used for data fitting. The data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2016 and GraphPad Prism 7.0.\n

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\n\nPharmacokinetic studies of GC376 and GS441524 in cats [6]\nA pharmacokinetic (PK) study was performed in laboratory cats to determine the efficacy of oral GS441524 and GC376. GS441524 was dissolved at a concentration of 12 mg/mL in 5% ethanol, 30% propylene glycol, 45% PEG 40%, and 20% water and adjusted to pH 1.9 with concentrated HCl. All animals were randomly divided into the following three groups: A (n ≧ 3; IV administration), B (n ≧ 3; SC administration), and C (n ≧ 3; PO oral administration). At time point zero, Group A cats were administered 5 mg compound/kg body weight intravenously, while Group B cats received 5 mg compound/kg subcutaneously. Serial 0.5 mL whole blood samples in EDTA were obtained from the radial vein of the forelimb from each cat at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 h. After collection, blood samples were immediately placed on ice and centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 5 min. The isolated plasma was pipetted into a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube and frozen at − 80 °C for further analysis of free GS441524. All samples were assessed using LCsingle bondMS-MS to detect the concentrations.\n

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\nHealthy cats (1–3 years old, 2.0–4.5 kg) were randomly assigned to eight groups (four animals per group) once they had been confirmed to be virus-free by a neutralizing antibody test. Meanwhile, we also measured their liver and kidney functions, and the test results were normal, ensuring that the test cats had the ability to absorb and metabolize drugs normally. The effect of GC376 or GS441524 oral administration was investigated first in FIP. After viral infection, animals with FIPV-rQS79 in the treatment groups received oral doses of GS441524 (20 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg or 5 mg/kg) or GC376 (150 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg or 15 mg/kg) in PBS (500 µL). The control group received the same volume of PBS. On day 0, the cats were infected by oral administration of FIPV-rQS79 (105 × TCID50) in DMEM (1000 µL). The therapeutic effect of GC376 and GS441524 after the onset of infection was examined next. Clinical signs and survival rates of the animals were monitored as described previously, and cat health was assessed every day [6].\n\n

Absorption, Distribution and Excretion
Compared with remdesivir, GS-441524 has poorer transport capacity into cells.

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Metabolism/Metabolites
GS-441524 is phosphorylated three times to form active nucleoside triphosphate.

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Pharmacokinetics of GS441524 and GC376 under different routes of administration and different doses[6]
To determine the oral doses of GC376 and GS441524, we tested the pharmacokinetics of healthy adult cats after administration via different routes of administration (including subcutaneous, oral and intravenous). Figures 2A and 2C show the concentration-time curves of GS441524 and GC376 after different routes of administration, respectively. The drug concentration in the pharmacokinetic samples was detected by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). The results showed that the area under the pharmacokinetic curve (AUC) of oral GS441524 was the same as that of subcutaneous injection, indicating that changing the route of administration did not affect drug absorption; therefore, GS441524 can be administered orally at the doses reported in the literature. In contrast, the absorption rate of oral GC376 was significantly lower than that of subcutaneous injection; therefore, a higher dose of oral GC376 may be required. Due to the low solubility of GS441524, we hypothesized that reduced drug solubility would affect its absorption. To verify this hypothesis, we evaluated the pharmacokinetic differences between GS441524 and GC376 administered in powder or solution form. The results showed that the absorption rate of GS441524 powder was significantly lower than that of liquid GS441524; however, there was no significant difference in the AUC values of oral and subcutaneous GS441524 (Figure 2 G and H). Conversely, the absorption rate of GC376 powder remained unchanged compared to liquid GC376; however, there was a significant difference in the absorption rates of oral and subcutaneous GC376 (Figure 2 E and F). In this study, the solution was used as the primary dosage form for subsequent animal studies.

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Pharmacokinetic studies of GC376 and GS441524 alone or in combination [5]
To further examine the potential of GC376 and GS441524, we evaluated the pharmacokinetic (PK) characteristics of SPF BALB/c mice and SD rats after intramuscular injection of GC376 (111 mg/kg), GS441524 (67 mg/kg), and GC376 + GS441524 (55.5 + 33.5 mg/kg), the same doses as those used in in vivo antiviral studies. In mice, pharmacokinetic results showed that both GC376 and GS441524 were rapidly absorbed after intramuscular injection, with peak plasma concentrations reached at 0.22 ± 0.07 h and 0.80 ± 0.24 h, respectively (Figures 5A, B and Table 1). Since the intramuscular dose of GC376 was approximately 1.7 times that of GS441524, we found that the maximum plasma drug concentration (Cmax) of GC376 (46.70 ± 10.69 μg/ml) was approximately 1.2 times that of GS441524 (39.64 ± 2.93 μg/ml) (Table 1). However, the area under the curve (AUC0−t) of GS441524 (AUC0−t = 106.82 ± 16.79) was approximately 1.9 times that of GC376 (AUC0−t = 55.29 ± 11.26). Simultaneously, we observed that the plasma clearance rate of GC376 (CL/F, 1985 ± 485 ml/h/kg) was approximately 3.1 times that of GS441524 (CL/F, 639 ± 119 ml/h/kg) (Table 1). Furthermore, pharmacokinetic results in SD rats showed that the time to peak concentration (Tmax) of GC376 and GS441524 were 1.30 ± 0.60 h and 2.00 ± 1.10 h, respectively (Figures 5D, E and Table 2). Compared with mice, the utilization efficiency of GS441524 in SD rats was significantly higher than that of GC376. We found that the maximum plasma drug concentration (Cmax) of GC376 (12.56 ± 1.90 μg/ml) was approximately 2.5 times that of GS441524 (30.96 ± 8.40 μg/ml) (Table 2). The area under the curve (AUC0−t) of GS441524 (AUC0−t = 183.33 ± 64.36) was approximately 2.0 times that of GC376 (AUC0−t = 92.14 ± 9.99). We also observed that the clearance rate of GC376 (CL/F, 1208 ± 122 ml/h/kg) in plasma was approximately 2.9 times that of GS441524 (CL/F, 423 ± 186 ml/h/kg).

GC376 and GS441524 did not show significant cytotoxicity in Vero E6 cells at concentrations up to 250 μM (CC50 > 250 μM; Supplementary Fig. 3). [5] The potential cytotoxicity of GC376 and GS441524 was determined by the CCK-8 assay. In CRFK cells, neither compound showed significant cytotoxicity at concentrations up to 100 μM (Fig. 1 C and F). [6]

[1]. The nucleoside analog GS-441524 strongly inhibits feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) virus in tissue culture and experimental cat infection studies. Vet Microbiol. 2018 Jun;219:226-233.

[2]. What Do We Know About Remdesivir Drug Interactions? Clin Transl Sci. 2020 May 13;10.1111/cts.12815.

[3]. Advantages of the Parent Nucleoside GS-441524 over Remdesivir for Covid-19 Treatment. ACS Med. Chem. Lett. 2020.
[4]. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2472555220942123

[5]. The preclinical inhibitor GS441524 in combination with GC376 efficaciously inhibited the proliferation of SARS-CoV-2 in the mouse respiratory tract. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2021 Dec;10(1):481-492.

[6]. Better therapeutic effect of oral administration of GS441524 compared with GC376. Vet Microbiol. 2023 Aug:283:109781.

GS-441524 is a C-nucleoside analog with the structure (2R,3R,4S,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydrofuran-2-onitrile, substituted at the 2-position with a 4-aminopyrrolo[2,1-f][1,2,4]triazine-7-yl. It is the active metabolite of remdesivir and exhibits broad inhibitory activity against various RNA viruses, including hepatitis C virus (HCV), parainfluenza virus, and SARS-CoV. It functions as a drug metabolite, antiviral agent, and anticoronavirus agent. It is a pyrrolotriazine compound, a nitrile compound, a C-nucleoside compound, and an aromatic amine compound. GS-441524 is an adenosine nucleotide analog antiviral drug, similar to remdesivir. This molecule was patented in 2009. In vitro studies have shown that GS-441524 has higher EC50 values against multiple viruses than remdesivir, implying lower efficacy. GS-441524 is currently under investigation for the treatment of feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV), a coronavirus that infects only cats. Mechanism of Action GS-441524 undergoes three phosphorylations to form an active nucleoside triphosphate, which integrates into the genome of the viral particle, thereby terminating viral replication. These results indicate that GS441524 is significantly more readily utilized in vivo than GC376. This finding may be one reason why GC376 has a poorer ability to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 in vivo. Previous studies have shown that GC376 targeting FIPV 3CLpro can effectively reduce viral load in feline ascites macrophages, and this effect is correlated with the duration of antiviral treatment [17,19]. Therefore, we hypothesize that GC376 can effectively inhibit the proliferation of coronaviruses (FIPV and SARS-CoV-2), but cannot rapidly clear the virus from infected tissues. During continuous administration, GC376 requires a prolonged period to maintain an effective concentration to inhibit viral proliferation in infected tissues. However, compared to GS441524, GC376 can be rapidly cleared in BALB/c mice and SD rats. Furthermore, the nasal turbinates and lungs are the main target organs for SARS-CoV-2 proliferation, and these tissues contain large amounts of SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, GC376 is unlikely to completely inhibit SARS-CoV-2 proliferation in the nasal turbinates and lungs of mice.
Furthermore, we found that the combined application of GC376 and GS441524 prolonged the T1/2 of SPF BALB/c mice from 1.51 ± 0.16 h to 1.67 ± 0.24 h, and prolonged the residence time of GS441524 (MRT0−t) from 2.07 ± 0.42 h to 2.37 ± 0.73 h (Figure 5C and Table 1). Similarly, pharmacokinetic results showed that the combined application of GC376 and GS441524 prolonged the T1/2 of SPF-grade SD rats from 3.80 ± 1.17 h to 5.13 ± 2.56 h, and prolonged the residence time of GS441524 (MRT0−t) from 4.50 ± 1.11 h to 6.03 ± 1.37 h (Figure 5F and Table 2). Furthermore, pharmacokinetic studies showed that GC376 reached its Cmax earlier (Tmax = 0.25 h in mice and 1.40 ± 0.49 h in SD rats) than GS441524 (Tmax = 0.55 ± 0.24 h in mice and 3.40 ± 1.20 h in SD rats), thus producing a synergistic effect (Figures 5C and F). When these drugs were used in combination, GC376 was the first to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication. After the plasma concentration of GC376 decreased, GS441524 reached its Cmax (Figures 5C and F and Tables 1 and 2), thereby sustainably inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 proliferation and maintaining an effective concentration for a longer period. This phenomenon may explain why the combined use of GC376 and GS441524 is superior to their use alone. In summary, we evaluated the efficacy of GC376 and GS441524 in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 replication using a mouse adaptive viral infection model. Importantly, we found that both intranasal administration of GS441524 and GC376+GS441524 significantly inhibited viral replication in the upper respiratory tract, and GC376+GS441524 was significantly more effective than GS441524 in inhibiting viral replication in the lower respiratory tract. Intranasal and intramuscular administration of the combined GS441524 and GC376+GS441524 effectively protected mice from HRB26M virus infection in both the upper and lower respiratory tracts, but GC376 alone failed to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication in mice. The dose of GC376+GS441524 was halved compared to GC376 or GS441524 alone, suggesting a synergistic effect between Mpro and RdRp inhibitors, warranting further development and consideration for future clinical practice. [5]

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Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), caused by feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV), threatens the health of cats. GS441524 and GC376 are effective against FIPV by inhibiting viral replication, but subcutaneous injection has limitations. Oral administration has advantages such as good patient compliance, convenience, low cost, and easy storage (Shriya S. Srinivasan, 2022). Oral administration is expected to become a new method for the treatment of FIP. Therefore, our study confirmed the efficacy of oral GS441524 and GC376 against lethal recombinant FIPV-rQS79 in vitro and in vivo.
First, we confirmed that both drugs effectively inhibited both FIPV viruses in cell culture. Both drugs have broad-spectrum antiviral activity against FIPV-rQS79 and FIPV II in vitro. Pharmacokinetics (PK) is closely related to pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetic tests can determine the drug processes (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) in cats (Asif et al., 2005). Pharmacokinetic studies revealed that GC376 is metabolized more rapidly than GS441524. GC376 also exhibits a shorter plasma elimination half-life and mean residence time (MRT) compared to GS441524. Oral administration of GC376 significantly improved total clearance and apparent volume of distribution compared to subcutaneous injection (P < 0.0001). GC376 is a covalent peptide mimic inhibitor, potentially derived from peptide inhibitors, and therefore contains more unstable chemical bonds. Previous studies have also shown that bisulfite adducts readily convert to aldehyde forms in water, and these aldehyde forms are prone to epimerization, forming active inhibitory stereoisomers (Vuong et al., 2021). These two points suggest that the use of GC376 may lead to poor clinical efficacy. However, when using GS441524, these pharmacokinetic parameters showed no significant differences between subcutaneous and oral administration routes. GS441524 exhibited favorable pharmacokinetic parameters, with identical areas under the curve (AUC) for both subcutaneous and oral administration (meaning identical bioavailability). This study differs from previous reports in humans and mice because oral bioavailability varies significantly across species: the F-value was 33% in rats, 85% in dogs, and 8.3% in cynomolgus monkeys (Davis et al., 2021; Humeniuk et al., 2020; Li et al., 2022; Wei et al., 2021; Xie and Wang, 2021). These results suggest that metabolic differences are one reason for the differences in in vivo efficacy of these drugs. These results preliminarily explain why GS441524 is more effective than GC376 in vivo. Solubility is a factor affecting drug absorption; given the low solubility of GS441524, we hypothesize that formulation factors also influence its oral absorption. The results showed that the absorption rate of oral GS441524 powder was significantly lower than that of oral liquid GS441524; however, there was no significant difference in the absorption rate of GS441525 via oral and subcutaneous administration. Conversely, the absorption rate of oral GC376 powder did not change compared to oral liquid GC376. Therefore, solubility affects the absorption of GS441524 but not the absorption of GC376. In vivo studies found that oral GS441524 was effective regardless of dosage, while oral GC376 was only effective at high doses (150 mg/kg). Although both drugs exhibited good inhibitory activity in vitro, their in vivo effects differed significantly. Drugs can enter the body through multiple routes, including enteral, parenteral, and local administration. Each route of administration has its specific purpose, advantages, and disadvantages. Fundamentally, the accessibility of the drug target and the effectiveness of drug therapy are closely related to the route of administration.
Among various routes of administration, oral administration has attracted much attention due to its numerous advantages, including high patient compliance, convenience, low cost, and ease of storage, transportation, and administration (Mignani et al., 2013). Although oral administration is the optimal method for administering small molecule drugs, its application also has some limitations. Compared to other routes of administration, the absorption mechanism after oral administration is more complex and influenced by multiple factors (e.g., gastrointestinal motility, gastric emptying rate, and the presence of food). Oral drugs must overcome the highly acidic environment of the stomach, dissolve in gastric juice, and remain stable in the dynamic gut microbiota; furthermore, these drugs must avoid degradation by degrading enzymes and penetrate the viscous mucus barrier and efflux pumps to achieve the required bioavailability for treatment (Srinivasan et al., 2022). Overcoming these obstacles is not easy. In addition to the oral route, the drug can also be administered via subcutaneous microvascular injection into the circulatory system; therefore, this method of administration has a relatively rapid onset of action but is also irritating and painful for animals. Furthermore, the production cost and quality requirements for injectable solutions are also higher. These differences in administration routes lead to differences in drug absorption and metabolism. Therefore, we should comprehensively consider various factors to choose a more optimal administration route. Meanwhile, pharmacokinetics provides guidance for clinical drug use. Pharmacokinetic data can also provide insights for drug structure optimization. We can further reduce the existing shortcomings of compounds through structural modification and hopefully develop more advantageous anti-FIPV compounds. For example, Liu et al. optimized the structure of GC376 and found that further modification of the benzyl group could enhance its bonding with Mpro and even form additional hydrogen bonds. The advantage of compound NK-0163 lies in its long half-life in important tissues such as the lungs, although halogen substitution may alter its pharmacokinetics (Liu et al., 2022). Quan et al. reported that a series of potent α-ketoamide-containing compounds, especially Y180, have excellent bioavailability in both rodents and non-rodents (Quan et al., 2022). Previous studies have also reported that GS441524 possesses good antiviral activity and has the potential for oral administration. However, its unfavorable oral pharmacokinetics has hindered its further development into an oral drug (Li et al., 2022). To address this issue, Wei et al. reported that a series of GS441524 analogues (with modifications to the base or glycosyl moiety) and several prodrug forms, among which 3′-isobutyryl ester 5a, 5′-isobutyryl ester 5c, and isobutyryl ester 5g hydrobromide exhibit superior oral bioavailability compared to GS441524 (71.6%, 86.6%, and 98.7%, respectively) (Wei et al., 2021). Further research is warranted on the modifications of GC376 and GS441524, which may improve their therapeutic efficacy in patients with FIPV. In summary, this study is the first to report that oral administration of GS441524 and GC376 can effectively treat FIPV infection in an animal model. Our study shows that oral administration can replace subcutaneous injection, although we still need to solve existing problems through new methods or approaches. Overall, GS441524 and GC376 completely inhibited the replication of FIPV-rQS79 and FIPV II in CRFK cells. Our study also verified the efficacy of oral administration of GC376 and GS441524 and confirmed the oral bioavailability of GS441524 and GC376. Through pharmacokinetic (PK) studies, we determined the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of the two drugs in cats. In addition, the PK results further explained the reasons for the difference in efficacy between the two drugs in vivo and provided ideas and directions for drug optimization and transformation. [6]

C12H13N5O4

291.2627

291.096

C, 49.48; H, 4.50; N, 24.04; O, 21.97

1191237-69-0

1355149-45-9 (GS-441524 triphosphate); 2378280-82-9 (HCl); 1809249-37-3 (Remdesivir); 1355050-21-3; 1809249-37-3; 2378280-83-0 (sulfate);1355357-49-1; 2647442-13-3

44468216

White to off-white solid powder

1.84±0.1 g

-1.4

4

8

2

21

456

4

O1[C@H](CO)[C@H]([C@H]([C@]1(C#N)C1=CC=C2C(N)=NC=NN12)O)O

BRDWIEOJOWJCLU-LTGWCKQJSA-N

InChI=1S/C12H13N5O4/c13-4-12(10(20)9(19)7(3-18)21-12)8-2-1-6-11(14)15-5-16-17(6)8/h1-2,5,7,9-10,18-20H,3H2,(H2,14,15,16)/t7-,9-,10-,12+/m1/s1

(2R,3R,4S,5R)-2-(4-aminopyrrolo[2,1-f][1,2,4]triazin-7-yl)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)oxolane-2-carbonitrile

Remdesivir metabolite; GS-441524; GS-5734 metabolite; GS 441524; GS441524; GS5734 metabolite; GS 5734 metabolite; Remdesivir-metabolite; GS-5734-metabolite; GS5734-metabolite; GS 5734-metabolite; 2R,3R,4S,5R)-2-(4-aminopyrrolo[2,1-f][1,2,4]triazin-7-yl)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydrofuran-2-carbonitrile; EVO984; EVO-984; (2R,3R,4S,5R)-2-(4-Aminopyrrolo[2,1-f][1,2,4]triazin-7-yl)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)oxolane-2-carbonitrile;

2934.99.9001

Powder      -20°C    3 years

                     4°C     2 years

In solvent   -80°C    6 months

                  -20°C    1 month

Room temperature (This product is stable at ambient temperature for a few days during ordinary shipping and time spent in Customs)

DMSO : ~120 mg/mL (with ultrasonic)
Water : Insoluble

Solubility in Formulation 1: 10 mg/mL (34.33 mM) in 5% ethanol, 30% propylene glycol, 45% PEG 400, 20% water (pH 1.5 with HCI) (add these co-solvents sequentially from left to right, and one by one), clear solution; with sonication.

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Solubility in Formulation 2: ≥ 2.75 mg/mL (9.44 mM) (saturation unknown) in 5% DMSO + 40% PEG300 + 5% Tween80 + 50% Saline (add these co-solvents sequentially from left to right, and one by one), clear solution.
Preparation of saline: Dissolve 0.9 g of sodium chloride in 100 mL ddH₂ O to obtain a clear solution.

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Solubility in Formulation 3: ≥ 2.08 mg/mL (7.14 mM) (saturation unknown) in 10% DMSO + 40% PEG300 + 5% Tween80 + 45% Saline (add these co-solvents sequentially from left to right, and one by one), clear solution.
For example, if 1 mL of working solution is to be prepared, you can add 100 μL of 20.8 mg/mL clear DMSO stock solution to 400 μL PEG300 and mix evenly; then add 50 μL Tween-80 to the above solution and mix evenly; then add 450 μL normal saline to adjust the volume to 1 mL.
Preparation of saline: Dissolve 0.9 g of sodium chloride in 100 mL ddH₂ O to obtain a clear solution.

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Solubility in Formulation 4: ≥ 2.08 mg/mL (7.14 mM) (saturation unknown) in 10% DMSO + 90% (20% SBE-β-CD in Saline) (add these co-solvents sequentially from left to right, and one by one), clear solution.
For example, if 1 mL of working solution is to be prepared, you can add 100 μL of 20.8 mg/mL clear DMSO stock solution to 900 μL of 20% SBE-β-CD physiological saline solution and mix evenly.
Preparation of 20% SBE-β-CD in Saline (4°C，1 week): Dissolve 2 g SBE-β-CD in 10 mL saline to obtain a clear solution.

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Solubility in Formulation 5: ≥ 2.08 mg/mL (7.14 mM) (saturation unknown) in 10% DMSO + 90% Corn Oil (add these co-solvents sequentially from left to right, and one by one), clear solution.
For example, if 1 mL of working solution is to be prepared, you can add 100 μL of 20.8 mg/mL clear DMSO stock solution to 900 μL of corn oil and mix evenly.

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 (Please use freshly prepared in vivo formulations for optimal results.)